Croatia - A Brief History

Croatia, a central and southeastern European country situated on the beautiful shores of the Adriatic, has been the homeland of the Croatian people for over 1,300 years. For centuries, Croatia has been caught between powerful empires or invaded by aggressive neighbours. Despite being the only Slavic country that never lost its full independence until 1918, she was, one could say, during some periods of history, only a dream in the minds and hearts of her people. But after the last war that ended in 1995, Croatia’s independence was reclaimed as a democratic country in the heart of Europe.

The existence and rich heritage of Croatia has often been an enigma to many, not only because the country has been, for the most part, under foreign control, but also because the information about Croatia and the Croatians has often been tailored to fit the needs of the conquerors or the ruling elements, without regard for Croatia or her people.

What follows is a brief overview of the country including its geography, political history, economy, religion, language, literature, theatre, music, fine arts, architecture, cinematography, and folklore. We hope that this brief synopsis whets your appetite to visit and experience Croatia firsthand for yourself.

Croatia’s Flag and Coat of Arms

Croatia’s official flag and coat of arms were established in the Republic of Croatia Constitution in Zagreb on December 21, 1990. The flag was designed by Miroslav Šutej. It consists of two main components: A checkered shield with alternating white (silver) squares and a crown made up of five historical Croatian emblems.

From left to right, the coat of arms represents: Croatia, the Republic of Dubrovnik, Dalmatia, Istria and Slavonia.

The coat of arms originates in 1491 – discovered as the oldest coat of arms in stone in a relief of the Holy Trinity in one chapel of the Cathedral of Senj. This relief was transferred from the Franciscan monastery of St. Peter which, together with the church, belonged to the Frankopan foundation (Croatian noble family).

The oldest example of the Croatian coat of arms with the first square being white is on the picture of Bosnian King Stjepan Tomaš (1444-1461). Also, Nikola Iločki, a Croatian nobleman, had made up several coins holding the Croatian checkered coat of arms with its 25 squares, with the first square being white.

Today, the use of the Croatian coat of arms is equally popular with a red square as the first or a white one. It seems that the only criterion in determining which square will be first is the background on which it lies. Both emblems have the same value, both are historical and both are equally Croatian.

In 1848, the Croatian flag was made up of three horizontal stripes: red, white, and blue. The colours represent the unity of all Croatian lands: Former Red Croatia, White Croatia, and the Kingdom of Slavonia (blue). Dalmatia as a separate state territory was not represented in the flag because this name was imposed by the occupying forces of Byzantine and Venice to the detriment of the Croatian state territories of Red and White Croatia. The Croatian provinces were so called at the time of Croatian kings Tomislav, Stjepan Držislav, and Petar Krešimir IV.

Because the Croatian flag is similar to flags of other countries, the Croatian coat of arms remains the only symbol of distinction. The coat of arms is Croatia’s national symbol and the symbol of Croatian statehood throughout centuries.

Geography

Croatia borders with Slovenia in the northwest, Hungary in the north, Serbia in the east, Bosnia-Hercegovina in the south, and Montenegro in the southeast. The western border of Croatia divides the Adriatic Sea into two parts: One belongs to Croatia and the other to Italy. The Drina River is a natural and historical border between Bosnia and Hercegovina and Serbia. From the time of the Roman Empire, the river Drina served as the demarcation line between the Eastern Byzantine Empire and the Western Roman Empire.

Croatia is a southeastern European country and her main orientation is to the Adriatic Sea, which makes her a Mediterranean country. However, a large area of Croatia is comprised of the Pannonian plains and, therefore, Croatia can also be considered a Pannonian or central European land. The country is divided into three main areas: Adriatic, Dinaric, and Pannonian.

The Adriatic is distinguished by its cleanliness and beautiful beaches where pleasant temperatures allow the swimming season to last up to five months. It is known as the “land of a thousand islands.”

The Dinaric Mountain region rises steeply from the Adriatic coast and gradually slopes toward the northern plains following a northwest to southeast contour. Although the mountains lie between the Adriatic and Pannonian regions, they do not separate northern and southern Croatia, but bring the two parts into a single geographic unit.

The Pannonian plains are found in northern Croatia. The plains at one time formed the great Pannonian Sea (the Balaton Lake in Hungary is its remnant). The Pannonian plains are a very fertile area, frequently called the “Croatian granary.”

Zagreb is the capital of Croatia. Other major cities are Split (the main city in Dalmatia), Rijeka (the most important port in the country), Osijek (the largest city in Slavonia), Pula (a major port and prime city in Istria), Zadar, Šibenik, and Dubrovnik (large medieval cities and cultural centers in southern Croatia). Karlovac, Gospić, Varaždin, Vinkovci, Sisak, and Bjelovar are also major economic, administrative, and cultural centers in the country.

Croatia’s population of 4.2 million (census of 2016) lives in its approximately 56,000 square kilometers of territory.

Origins and Political History

Croatia’s history is as varied as its coastline. While European Croatian history begins in the 7th Century, the first mention of the Croatian name—Harauvat-iš—is found on the famous inscriptions of Darius the Great in 500 BC. As well, the old Persian Holy Books known as Avesta also mention the Croatians under the name “Harahvaita.”

Some historians believe that Croatians inhabited today’s Southern Afghanistan, Eastern Iran and Beluchistan. By 200 BC, according to inscriptions discovered on the shores of the Azov Sea and the old Ukrainian Chronicles, the “Hrobatoi” (Croatians) were inhabiting the Azov Sea area. From there they moved northward in the direction of the Carpathian Mountains to which they gave their national (Haravathian) name.

In this area of Southern Poland and Northern Ukraine, they established a large state called White Croatia with Cracow as its capital. (According to Persian tradition the white color signified the west.) By this time, the Croats had become a totally Slavic nation in language, culture and worship.

In AD 395, the Roman Empire was divided into eastern and western domains. The river Drina in the Balkan became a demarcation line not only between the two parts of the empire, but, in time, between two cultures, two Christian Churches and two civilizations – Western and Byzantine. Although this division took place before the Croatians even settled in the region, it significantly impacted the Croatian history and culture.

In their new homeland, Croatians found themselves on the fringes of what became known as the Western world. Today, numerous Croatian towns, churches, and monuments are lying on old Roman foundations, and many of them still guard great Roman landmarks. Further, the river Drina became a permanent border between the Croatians and their eastern neighbours, the Serbs.

In 626, the White Croatians were invited by Byzantine Emperor Heraclius to free the empire of invading Avars. A treaty between Heraclius and the Croats gave the Croats all lands previously occupied by the Avars. When they settled in this area (today’s Croatia which extends to the Danube and Drava Rivers in the north and to the Adriatic Sea to the south), they were already a militarily and socially organized people with their own religion.

By the 7th Century, Croats had converted to Christianity and in 679, Croats signed a treaty with Pope Agathon, promising peace and non-aggression toward its neighbours. This promise was kept – the Croatian national army has never conducted military activities outside of its boundaries.

Like many present-day West European states, Croatia arose from the ruins of the Western Roman Empire. The Croats organized their political power in the form of principalities as early as the 9th Century. In 925, these principalities were united by King Tomislav into a Croatian state. The independent Croatian state in the early Middle Ages left a strong imprint of national identity and state-constitutional continuity upon the consciousness of the Croatian people.

Expansion of the Ottoman Empire and Peasant Uprisings

he worst consequence of the Turkish devastation of the Croatian border areas was the migration of the Croatian population to the south, west and north. Data shows that the Croatian diaspora from the 15th to the 16th centuries was leaving on a massive scale. This devastated Croatian regions on both sides of the Austrian-Turkish border, which were populated by Balkan Vlachs and other people of Orthodox religion, who served the Austrian and Turkish sovereigns, respectively. The Turks also had a policy of taking Christian children as “blood levy” and training them into zealous soldiers, known as Janissaries.

By the end of the Turkish wars, Croatia was facing biological and territorial extinction. The first massive Croatian emigration took place during those troubled times. Some 100,000 Croats left their homeland and moved to Burgenland in Austria, to Molise in Italy and to Hungary and Romania.

Adding to the toll of the wars was the greed of the foreign nobility that had begun to rule Croatian estates, the native nobility having been destroyed in the wars against the Turks. Life became intolerable for the Croats and resulted in numerous uprisings of the peasants, the most significant led by Matija Gubec in 1573.

During this time, the Croatian leadership passed to the Croatian nobleman (Ban) Nikola Zrinski and his brother-in- law, Fran Krsto Frankopan. Realizing that Croatia was being threatened with extinction by the constant attacks of Turks and with little support from the west, Zrinski and Frankopan attempted to make a coalition with the Turks to prevent further loss of lives.

The power of the Zrinski and Frankopan families, and their intention of making peace with the Turks did not please King Leopold of Austria. He invited them to Vienna to discuss the situation, but when they arrived, they were imprisoned and beheaded in 1671. King Leopold ordered that all their wealth be seized and brought to Vienna and that every male member of the two families be executed. This is how the oldest and most outstanding Croatian noble families were completely extinguished.

Croatia between 1918 and 1941

By becoming a part of the new state of Yugoslavia in 1918, Croatia broke the continuity of its statehood, which it owned for more than one thousand years. This set the stage for national struggles for autonomy, through the reconstruction of this new centralist state into a federation.  

The Serbian politicians’ answer to the demands for the reconstruction of Yugoslavia, which were becoming increasingly strong in various parts of the newly formed state, was the introduction of a dictatorship in 1929.

The centralist rule on the whole territory of the new state was marked after 1929 by an even greater Serbian dominance. In all Yugoslav governments, the prime ministers and holders of important portfolios (army, foreign affairs, internal affairs, finances) were almost always Serbs.

All non-Serbian nations started a political struggle against such Serbian hegemony. The struggle soon provoked countermeasures aimed against the nationalist movement of the non-Serbian nations.

The culmination of the Serbian policies played out on June 20, 1928 when two Croatian politicians including the leader of the Croatian people, Stjepan Radić, were assassinated in the Parliament in Belgrade.

Despite this assassination, the non-Serbian peoples took no decisive action to dismember the new state because they were exposed to the imperialist aspirations of powerful neighbouring states. They favoured reform of the state organization. In this respect, the agreement in 1939 which established the autonomous region (Banovina) of Croatia was a positive step.

The occupation and dismemberment of Yugoslavia in 1941 by the Germans put an end to the struggle of the non-Serbian nations for federalism and national equality, barely 23 years after Yugoslavia’s inception. Because of the unresolved national question, the non-Serbian peoples experienced Yugoslavia’s collapse in 1941 as a break-up of an odious institution which both the communists and the nationalists called the “dungeon of the peoples.” The establishment of Yugoslavia in 1918 proved to have been a mistake.

On April 10, 1941, Croatia declared itself an independent state, but it was not recognized as such. Even after the war and end of hostilities, the Croatian nation was once again threatened. Over half a million Croatian soldiers and civilians were murdered by the Yugoslav Communists during President Tito’s regime. This policy was practiced by the Yugoslav secret police even in the 1980s, labeling all patriotic Croatians as fascists and terrorists, regardless that the majority were born and educated under the communist regime.

Declaration of Independence in 1980

In the late 1980s, with the world focused on the Soviet Union and Mikhael Gorbachev’s Perestroika Movement, democracy looked promising in Eastern Europe. Significant events included the physical dismantling of the Berlin Wall and unification of East and West Germany. Multi-party systems replaced dictatorships and communist rule in Hungary, Poland, Czechoslovakia and Romania. The Balkan Peninsula was also swept up in democracy.

In 1987, Serbia became involved in aggressive activities under relatively favorable internal and external circumstances, and continued the same course despite numerous setbacks.

The Serbian aggression was met with the decision on the part of Slovenia and Croatia to form their own sovereign states (following free, multi-party elections in 1990 in which the communists lost power). In these two republics, the procedure of implementing sovereignty was accelerated after national referendums had been conducted in which a majority of voters once again decided in favour of the independence of their republics.

For the first time in over 50 years on April 22, 1990, Croatians went to the polls to vote in a free election. They elected to power a democratic government led by Dr. Franjo Tuđman of the Croatian Democratic Union (Hrvatska Demokratska Zajednica).

With the overwhelming support for democracy in both Croatia and Slovenia (another republic of Yugoslavia), Yugoslavia’s control over its union of nations was badly shaken. This shake-up revived feelings and ideas toward a national identity and independence throughout Croatia. Free elections were also held in the other republics of Yugoslavia including Slovenia, Bosnia-Hercegovina, and Macedonia – all voting for democracy. Montenegro and Serbia re-elected the communists to power.

Croatian War of Independence - 1991-1995

The Croatian War of Independence was fought from 1991 to 1995 between Croat forces loyal to the government of Croatia—which had declared independence from the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY)—and the Serb- controlled Yugoslav People’s Army (JNA) and local Serb forces, with the JNA ending its combat operations in Croatia by 1992.

In Croatia, the war is primarily referred to as the “Homeland War” (Domovinski rat) and, also, as the “Greater-Serbian Aggression” (Velikosrpska agresija). In Serbian sources, “War in Croatia” (Rat u Hrvatskoj) and “War in Krajina” (Rat u Krajini) are used.

As free elections demonstrated, Croats overwhelmingly wanted Croatia to leave Yugoslavia and become a sovereign country, while many ethnic Serbs living in Croatia, supported by Serbia, opposed the secession and wanted Serb-claimed lands to be in a common state with Serbia.

Most Serbs effectively sought a new Serb state within a Yugoslav federation, including areas of Croatia and Bosnia and Hercegovina with ethnic Serb majorities or significant minorities, and attempted to conquer as much of Croatia as possible.

The JNA initially tried to keep Croatia within Yugoslavia by occupying all of Croatia. After this failed, Serb forces established the self-proclaimed Republic of Serbian Krajina (RSK) within Croatia. After the ceasefire of January 1992 and international recognition of the Republic of Croatia as a sovereign state, the front lines were entrenched, the United Nations Protection Force (UNPROFOR) was deployed and combat became largely intermittent in the following three years. During that time, the RSK encompassed more than a quarter of Croatia.

In 1995, Croatia launched two major offensives known as Operation Flash and Operation Storm, which would effectively end the war in its favor. The remaining United Nations Transitional Authority for Eastern Slavonia, Baranja and Western Sirmium (UNTAES) zone was peacefully reintegrated into Croatia by 1998.

The war ended with Croatian victory, as it achieved the goals it had declared at the beginning of the war: Independence and preservation of its borders. However, 21–25 percent of Croatia’s economy was ruined, with an estimated US$37 billion in damaged infrastructure, lost output, and refugee- related costs. About 20,000 people were killed in the war and refugees were displaced.

Economy

Croatia has been blessed with a diversity of climates and soils, with mountain ranges and rich Pannonian plains, with numerous rivers and the beautiful Adriatic Sea. These natural blessings provide Croatia the opportunity to develop a variety of economic activities including agriculture as well as local and international trade, shipping, animal husbandry, fishing, mining, manufacturing and other economic endeavours.

Tourism is also a strong source of income for Croatia, especially along its Dalmatian coast. The industry is considered an export business, because it significantly reduces the country’s external trade imbalance.

Since the conclusion of the Croatian War of Independence, the tourist industry has grown rapidly, recording a fourfold rise in tourist numbers, with more than 10 million tourists each year. The most numerous are tourists from Germany, Slovenia, Austria and the Czech Republic as well as Croatia itself.

Croatia has unpolluted marine areas reflected through numerous nature reserves and 116 Blue Flag beaches. Croatia is ranked as the 10th most popular tourist destination in the world. About 15 percent of its visitors (over one million per year) are involved with naturism, an industry for which Croatia is world-famous. It was also the first European country to develop commercial naturist resorts.

Religion

Before coming to the present homeland, Croatians were polytheists – believers in many gods. It was only when they reached the Roman provinces of Pannonia and Dalmatia that they encountered a very rich Roman civilization and Christian religion.

The baptism of Prince (Knez) Višeslav (785-802) is still preserved and safeguarded at the Museum of Ancient Croatian History in Split. It symbolizes the beginning of Croatian history in the present homeland, which was closely bound to the Roman Church. However, it was not until Knez Branimir (879-892) came to power that the religious alliance of the Croatians decisively shifted in favour of the Roman Church. In return, Pope John VIII gave his support to Croatian independence. This was the first international recognition of Croatian independence, as well as the papal protection of the state and church which was caught between two empires and two Christian traditions.

It is important to note that just as the Croatian regions became politically separated, the Church in Croatia was also dismembered during the many centuries of foreign domination. However, in 1969, the Catholic Church was organized into four metropolises (Zagreb, Split, Sarajevo and Rijeka), one independent archdiocese (Zadar) and one independent diocese with an ethnically mixed population (Subotica). Historical developments made Zagreb the capital of Croatia as well as the seat of the head of the Church in Croatia. There are also a few thousand Uniate Catholics whose diocese is in Križevci.

The cathedral in Zagreb is the symbol of contemporary church unity among Croatian Catholics at home and in exile. Another recent unifying symbol among the Catholic faithful has been the late Cardinal Alojzije Stepinac, who died in 1960 as a prisoner of the Belgrade Communist regime. He represents the unbeaten spirit of the Croatian people and of the Croatian Church, and their resolution to withstand any misfortune. In 1998, Stepinac was named a martyr and beatified by Pope John Paul II.

In the 9th Century, only three monasteries existed in Croatia, in the 10th Century about ten, and in the 11th Century, there were already fifty religious houses. These were Benedictine monasteries for men and women. The Jesuits and other religious societies also established themselves in later centuries. The Franciscans were the only group that stayed with the faithful who were under Turkish occupation and sustained their faith through the period from the 15th to the 19th centuries.

 The monasteries were not only houses of prayer, but centers of many cultural activities. They had schools, libraries, hospitals, pharmacies and other amenities. The Franciscan monastery in Dubrovink established a pharmacy in 1317 which is the oldest one in Europe. The growth of religious orders among the Croatians, as well as their activities, express the strong faith of the Croatian people.

While the country is predominantly Catholic (over 86 percent), other religions include Islam, Judaism, Orthodox Christianity, and Protestantism. Croatia has no official religion and freedom of religion is a right defined by the Constitution of Croatia, which also defines all religious communities as equal in front of the law and separate from the state.

Language

The Croatian language belongs to the Slavic family of languages and, more specifically, to the Southern Slavic languages. Croatia has been known by its national Croatian name for over one thousand years of its history. Other names like Illyrian, Slavic, Bosnian, and Dalmatian have been used as synonyms for “Croatian.”

The origin of the oldest Croatian alphabet, Glagolitsa, are still uncertain. It flourished among the Croatians particularly along the Adriatic coast. However, from the 15th Century, its use was reduced mainly to the needs of the church. Along with the Latin language, Croatian, written in the Glagolitic script, was also used in liturgy and reluctantly tolerated by the Vatican. Some parts of Croatia used the vernacular in the church liturgy from the Middle Ages to Vatican II (1960s).

The oldest document in which the Croatian language is mentioned by its names dates from 1177 when Pope Alexander III visited Zadar.

The Croatian language consists of three dialects: Kaykavian, Chakavian, and Shtokavian. The roles of these dialects in the different periods varied, but all three dialects have fulfilled the function of a literary language.

Literature

Many scholars consider the Humačka ploča (a stone inscription from the 10th Century found and kept at Humac, near Ljubuški, Hercegovina) the oldest known inscription in the Croatian language (Cyrillic/Bosnian script). However, Croatian literature or, rather, literacy, certainly predates this inscription.

The oldest known Croatian inscription in the Glagolitic script is the Baščanska ploča. It originated in 1100 at Baška on the Island of Krk. Its text states that King Zvonimir (1075-1089) had given a plot of land to the local monastery and the church of St. Lucy, and that the inscription was written by Abbot Držiha (Držislav).

After the 11th Century, there was a relatively rich period in epigraphy, especially in Southern Croatia where the Glagolitic script prevailed. From the 13th and 14th centuries, several authentic works in the Croatian language are seen such as the Istrian Partition (record of a survey of the lands of Istria in 1275), the Vindol Legal Code (1288) and the Poljica Statute (date unknown). Also, several songs were written in the Glagolitic script – one can see seven poems dating from the 14th Century in the National Library of Paris.

In the 15th Century, legends of saints’ lives were being written; however, most of them were in the Latin alphabet. A few years after the invention of the printing press, a significant amount of printing activity developed in Croatia. This gave new impetus to literary activity and the first known book printed in Croatia is the well-preserved Glagolitic missal from 1483. The first book printed in the modern Croatian language was published in 1495.

Also in the 15th Century, several Croatian humanists and poets became well-known outside their homeland. However, one of the greatest and most distinguished works of old Croatian literature is Marko Marulić’s (1450-1524) Judith. In this book, one can clearly recognize the influence of the classical works as well as unknown native poets and writers of saintly legends.

In the first half of the 19th Century, writers re-awakened the Croatian national feeling and instilled a sense of national responsibility through their literature. At the end of the century, outstanding poets and writers appeared, and in the beginning of the 20th Century, there were many popular women writers including Marija Jurić-Zagorka as well as a Nobel prize candidate, Ivana Brlić-Mažuranić.

Theatre

Croatia’s theatre tradition spans over 900 years. Based on church reports from Zagreb at the end of the 12th Century, Croatia already played dramas in the city. Plays were typically based on biblical stories and enacted realistically describing everyday life.

In the 14th Century, religious plays combined with Renaissance drama and the 18th Century saw the blossoming of the Kaykavian School of Drama in Northern Croatia. At its beginning, the theater life was confined to Catholic seminaries and the aristocratic boarding schools. There was also a limited number of original plays, with the majority of them being translations of works of Austrian and French dramatists.

The 19th Century introduced “tragic heroes” into plays. The time between 1860-1880 in Croatian theatrical history has been called “the era of August Šenoa,” because he translated plays from French and other non-Germanic languages. At the same time, with the internationalization of Croatia’s theater life in Zagreb, Šenoa emphasized the need for a national dramatic expression of domestic themes.

By the 19th Century, many theaters in Croatia had professional companies. Such an important change had a noticeable effect on the theater life among Croatians. It gave a great boost especially to the National Theater in Zagreb, but the provincial theaters benefited as well. Many major Croatian cities have a rich theater tradition which continues to flourish today.

Music

The first known musical writing in Croatia dates from the 10th Century. A codex found in Šibenik from that century contains neumatic notations.

Many works that contain pieces of music have been preserved from the 12th Century. The better known are the Book of Laudes, from the Book of Gospels at St. Simeon Church in Zadar, and the Book of Antiphones (Korčula), with the notes on the red line.

The oldest collection of church hymns in Croatian dates from the early 17th Century, but the first such hymnbook with melodies was published Vienna in 1635. A similar book of Croatian church hymns, Pavlinska pjesmarica, containing more than fifty melodies, dates from 1664. The Cithara Octochorda, however, is the best-known Croatian musical collection that contains very old melodies. It was published at the beginning of the 18th Century.

The 19th Century ushered in a very fruitful period in the history of Croatian music. While German musical works were an important part of Croatia’s musical scene, native talents were producing music following national tradition. The melody for the Croatian national anthem, Ljepa naša domovino (Our Beautiful Homeland) was written by Josip Runjanin in 1846 to Antun Mihanović’s verses which Mihanović wrote in 1835.

The Croatian Musical Institute was founded in Zagreb in 1827. Musicians in this institution have always kept up with the times in style or ideas of the world of music and encouraged the development of national music.

Several Croatians have become noted conductors, pianists, violin virtuosos and other instrumentalists. World-renowned opera singers include Ilma Pukšec-Murska, Ema Vizjak, Josip Kasman, Marija Prikril, Milka Trnina, Krunoslav Cigoj, Tomislav Neralić, Božena Ruk-Fočić and others. All of them have appeared successfully on the best opera stages in the world.

Fine Arts

The earliest Croatian art and architecture are sacral. Churches, large and small, were the pride of people of all walks of life and the works of art in those churches were an expression of their faith in God and of their love for their native land. However, ancient cultures and civilizations have left rich vestiges in Croatia that were not only preserved by Croatians, but have influenced the Croatian cultural and artistic developments.

Painting

The oldest known Croatian paintings still in existence date from the 11th Century (some fragments of frescoes dating from earlier periods do exist, however). The best known such painting is found in the church of St. Michael at Ston near Dubrovnik. The princely benefactor depicted in the painting has the crown of the Croatian kings on his head.

From the 11th to the 16th centuries, Croatian churches were enriched by fresco paintings. These paintings include different styles – Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance – and express different artistic influences, primarily Italian and Byzantine. The artists that worked on these paintings came from different countries; however, many of them were native Croatians.

The best frescoes in Croatia come from the second half of the 15th and beginning of the 16th Century. Very often one can find inscriptions in Glagolitic (old Croatian) script on these pictures. The best-known wall painting from that period is Vincent’s (from Kastav) Danse Macabre at the church of St. Mary in Škriljine near Beram, Istria (1474).

Other paintings also decorate churches and monasteries in Southern Croatia. Numerous native painters were so active in 1480, they formed a fraternity in Dubrovnik. Many artists of the time worked on illuminations of missals and other church books.

With the founding of the Croatian Society of Arts in 1882 and the Academy of Fine Arts in 1907, Zagreb became a flourishing artistic center. At this time, an effort was made to blend Western European artistic achievements with the Croatian painting traditions. The master of the “Zagreb School” was Vlaho Bukovac (1855-1922). Bukovac painted portraits and decorative compositions and succeeded in grouping around himself artists who were later influenced by the Vienna Succession. He is well-known for the paintings entitled Gundulić’s Dream and The Croatian National Revival (on the curtain of the Croatian National Theater in Zagreb).

Some of the best Croatian artists from the beginning of the 20th Century are Josip Račić (1885-1908), an impressionist, Miroslav Kraljević (1885-1913), and Vilko Gecan, an expressionist. The 1930s saw the “Group of Three” that included Vladimir Becić, Jerolim Miše, and Ljubo Babić.

The early 1930s also saw a new artistic circle develop - the Earth Group (Grupa Zemlja) that were Croatian artists, architects and intellectuals active in Zagreb from 1929 to 1935. From this group, Croatian naive art developed. The best known among the Croatian naive artists are Ivan Generalić and Ivan Lacković-Croata. This simple and colourful Croatian art form has found admirers throughout the world, as well as many imitators.

Sculptor

The earliest sculptural art in Croatia was richly expressed in ornamental reliefs. A three-line lace (troplet) prevalent in early Croatian art became a national symbol. The better-known early relief monuments with human figures from the 10th and 11th centuries are found in Zadar and Split.

In the 11th Century, numerous steles (known as Stećci) are found in Bosnia and Hercegovina and some parts of Dalmatia. The anonymous folk artists left not only an art treasure on those large stones, but a vivid expression of contemporary life.

In the early centuries of Croatian national history, the arts of sculpture and architecture are not only related, but they complement each other. In most builds of the time, one can also find well-known names in Croatian sculpture.

The most prominent Croatian sculptor of the 20th Century is Ivan Meštrović (1883-1962). He began to work with a group called “Medulić,” named after the Renaissance painter, Andrija Medulić. Meštrović exploited religious and historical motifs and used all the techniques to produce all sizes of sculptures. After the Second World War, he lived and worked in Syracuse, New York and South Bend, Indiana where he died. His best-known works in America are the statues of the American Indians at the entrance of Grant Park in Chicago, St. Jerome at the Croatian Franciscan House in Washington, D.C. and the Pieta at the Sacred Heart Church at University of Notre Dame. Many of his early works are kept in his gallery in Split, Atelier Meštrović in Zagreb, and many European churches and museums.

In Croatia, sculptors following Meštrović’s tendencies and trends have continued to enrich their nation with beautiful art works. This includes Antun Augustinčić, Vanja Radauš, Frano Kršinić, Kosta Angeli Radovani, Ivan Kožarić, Dušan Džamonja, and others who are among the best known Croatian sculptors of the 20th Century.

Among the Croatian sculptors in diaspora, the best known are Josip Turkalj (USA), who worked with Meštrović during his Notre Dame years, Augustin Filipović, Ante Sardelić (Canada), and the late Paul Kufrin (USA).

Architecture

Croatians were introduced to architectural design when they arrived on the Adriatic shores and came in touch with the highly developed Roman building accomplishments. Several buildings in Croatia date from Roman times. The Euphrasius Basilica in Poreč and the Emperor Diocletian’s Palace in Split are among the best known.

Several uniquely built small Croatian churches along the coastal regions date from the 9th Century. They are of different ground plan (three aisle basilicas, circular, six leaves, cross) and all of them are vaulted. For example, the Holy Cross Church near Nin was built by unknown native builders. The church has the ground plan of an identically sided cross. It was the church of the Croatian rulers and the head bishop. Some consider it the smallest cathedral in Christendom.

There are a few monumental buildings in Croatia which come from the pre-Romanesque period (700-1000). The churches of St. Donat in Zadar, St. Michael in Ston, and the Holy Trinity at Poljud near Split are among the most important architectural monuments of that time.

Almost every larger town in Southern Croatia has a cathedral. The cathedrals were symbols of the town’s political and ecclesiastic autonomy. Many of the cathedrals were built during the Romanesque period such as St. Stošija and St. Krševan in Zadar, and St. Tripun in Koto. The builder Miha from Dubrovnik was especially known in this period. The Franciscan monastery in Dubrovnik is one of his famous works.

In Northern Croatia, the best-known building from the Romanesque era was the Zagreb cathedral. It was consecrated in 1227. After it was destroyed by the Tatars, it was renovated in the 13th and 14th centuries. In 1880, the cathedral was seriously damaged again and it was restored in the Neo- Gothic style. The transitional period from Romanesque to Gothic style is evident in cathedrals such as St. Duimus (Dujo) in Split.

Viktor Kovačić is the most important architect of the 19th Century and is known as the father of modern architecture in Croatia. He achieved harmony and synthesis of both functional and artistic components in architecture. Examples of his work are the Church of St. Blaise and the Stock Exchange Building in Zagreb.

Today, the fast-growing urban centers and unmitigated functionalism are becoming the dominating architectural factors in Croatia, while the artistic components are losing ground.

Cinematography

On October 8, 1896, the first film was shown in Croatia. After this, a permanent cinema was established in Zagreb in 1906 and a year later, cinemas were established in Split, Rijeka, Sušak and Zadar. However, it was not until the 1970s that the film industry’s productivity started improving. Films mocking social vices and bringing in fierce criticism of Yugoslav socialism were popular. The most prominent filmmakers were Krsto Papić, Antun Vrdoljak, and Fadil Hadžić. Papić’s film, Living with my Uncle captured national and international film awards.

In the early 1970s, when the creative impulses in Croatia had been dampened by the regimes, some producers brought to their films popular singers, sportsmen and other celebrities to attract more viewers. If one assesses the Croatian feature film industry not only through what was achieved, but by what was neglected, one can see that Croatian historical topics remain unexploited.

One of Croatia’s better known cinema stars is Goran Višnjić who made his debut in America on the film series ER. Today Višnjić lives in the United States with his wife and children and continues to work in Hollywood as well as on films in Croatia.

Folklore Music and Dance

The wealth and variety of folklore in Croatia is attributed to its history of politically separated regions. That is, because the regions were separated, they experienced different cultural and religious influences. Ivan Ivančan, a prominent expert on Croatian folklore, states that there are four major regions in Croatian folk music and dancing: Alpine, Pannonian, Dinaric, and Adriatic.

While there is no agreement on what exactly is included under the term “folklore,” there is no doubt that folk dancing and musical instruments are included.

The most popular folk dancing in Croatia is the “kolo” or circle dance. These dances are usually accompanied by instrumental music, sometimes with singing, or a combination of the two. Dancers wear colorful and beautiful folk costumes.

The Alpine region covers the northwestern portion of Croatia. Better-known dances from this part of the country include Balun (Istria), Stari čardaš (Međimjurje), Turopoljksi drmeš (Banija), and Grizlica (Podravina).

Most of the dances from this region are done in pairs and all of them move in a “westward direction” (clockwise). Dances are accompanied by string instruments, but along the Slovenian border, accordions and trumpets are also used. Usually, there is no singing during the dance in this part of Croatia. 

The Pannonian folklore region includes most of Northern Croatia – parts of Međimurje and Podravina, Slavonija, Bačka, Srijem, parts of Northern Bosnia and the regions around the rivers Una and Kupa. The region is known for its wealth of lively dances, fast music, and multicolored and richly embroidered costumes. Dancers are lined up in two rows or they dance in pairs, but most times the two forms are combined. In some parts of eastern Croatia, the ‘westward’ and ‘eastward’ directions are often interchanged.

The regions of Kordun, Banija, Pokuplje, Lika, the Dalmatian islands, and Bosnia and Hercegovina belong to the Dinaric folk dance region. A very hard village life and a centuries old struggle with nature and foreign invaders left a lasting mark on the folklore of this area. Most of these parts of Croatia were under Turkish occupation and a fusion of ‘east and west’ is visible in their folklore.

The Dinaric dances are very lively. In most cases, one pair of dancers separates itself from the group and challenges the rest either by word or by performing difficult dance moves. The male steps are characterized either by strong tapping or by high and wide leaps in the air. Most of these dances have a dance leader who directs the moves.

The dances of the Dinaric region could be divided based on religious affiliation. Moslem Croatian dances, for example, represent an interesting phenomenon in the Slavic and European folklore because they are a harmonious combination of the native and Eastern folklore. Among the best-known dances from the Dinaric regions are Ličko kolo, Glamočko kolo, Vrličko kolo, Sinjsko kolo, Kupreško kolo and Trusa (or Truska).

The Adriatic folk dancing region stretches from the Bay of Kvarner to the Bay of Kotor. It includes the seacoast and the islands. The folk dancing in this area can be divided into two sub regions: Northern and Southern Dalmatia. In the northern parts, most times dancers stand in two lines: the men on one side and the women on the other. In the southern region, most of the dances are done in pairs. In both areas, the role of the dance leader is very important – in the north, the leader is the “first man of the dance,” leading the dance and directing the entire group. In the south, the leader gives orders to the dancers verbally, indicating the duration of each of the dance parts. Sometimes he is the first one to change the step and others follow, or he shouts the changes.

Dances from the Adriatic region include Šotiš (the word itself comes from Scottish), Tanac (Krk, Cres, Lošinj), Kolo (Novi Vinodolski), Kolo na tkanicu ((Uglanj), Pržumera (Šolta), Traškun (Hvar), Linđo and Brsaljera (Dubrovnik region).

Music

Music is also a very important part of Croatian folk dance. A rich variety of instruments are used in Croatian folk music. Although drums and wind instruments are used, string instruments most often accompany Croatian dances. The tamburica (a long-necked lute resembling a mandolin) is the Croatian national instrument, which likely originated in Croatia’s ancient homeland – today’s Iran and Afghanistan.

There is an entire family of tamburicas, and each has a special role in an orchestra.

The tamburicas that usually make up an orchestra include the Prim or Bisernica (three of them voiced in three parts), Brač (also three of them), Čelo Berda(bass) and Bugarija. Other instruments often used in Croatian folk music are the violin, šargija (Bosnian), samica (Lika), and lijerica (southernmost part of Croatia). Gusle, a one-string fiddle, accompanies the player in his singing of epic songs.

The best-known Croatian wind instruments are sopile (Istria), jedinka (a wood instrument resembling a flute) and dvojnice (a single and double whistle flute), diple, gajde, and dude (played as a bagpipe). The accordion is often played in Bosnia and in some parts of Dalmatia, as well as the harmonica in certain parts of Bosnia and Hercegovina.

Costumes

Just as they have a diversity of dances, Croatians also have a variety of national costumes. Although there are some common characteristics in Croatian national costumes, each region and even every district has its own original embroidery designs and colour combination.

Croatian national costumes, especially in the northern regions, are known for their exquisite embroidery and cheerful colours. Multi-coloured threads are used to create a beautiful piece of folk art. Lively music, a variety of dance steps, and colourful costumes blend harmoniously to offer an attractive picture of Croatian folklore.

The female’s national dress (kolo outfit) generally consists of a plain white dress or blouse (košulja) or underskirt (skutići), which is usually the basic form of the costume. It is then added with other clothing and decorations, which may include another overdress or skirt (kotula), a decorative jacket (djaketa, paletun or koret), apron (ogrnjač or pregjača), scarf (ubrsac), kerchief or shawl which are usually decorated with a floral or animal motif. The embroidery is very intricate and is usually red, white, blue, gold, or black.

Her jewellery, ranging from necklaces, earrings, bracelets, and rings could consist of gold, silver, beads, pearls, or even corral from the Adriatic. Hair is interwoven into one or two braids and decorated with red ribbons for girls or women that are unmarried, while married women wear woven or silk kerchiefs on their heads.

Costumes of brides consist of a crown or wreath often made of flowers (vijenac) and large amounts of jewelry. The woman’s head could be adorned by a kerchief, cap, or a headdress, the most famous being the headdresses worn by the women from the Island of Pag. The amount of paraphernalia a woman is adorned with, either very much or rarely any at all, depends on the region. Completing the costume are stockings (bječve) or knee-high socks, and boots or a special kind of sandal called opanci.

The male’s national dress usually consists of loose, wide slacks (gače široke) and a shirt, and both are usually either black or white, or both. The man may wear a decorative or plain vest (fermen or jačerma) over his shirt and/or a waistcoat. The man almost always wears a cap, varying in shape and design depending on the region. The most famous cap is perhaps the Lika cap, which has been worn in the Lika region for centuries. Footwear, like the women’s, consists mainly of boots and sandals. Because of the weather, certain places may have woolen vests, cloaks, coats, or fur for the colder regions, and silk and light linens for the warmer climates.

Croatians outside their homeland zealously guard their national music, dances, and costumes. Wherever Croatians live they organize folk dance groups and tamburica orchestras. One of the largest Croatian folk festivals attracting over a thousand dancers and tamburica players takes place in Canada every year.

What all Croatians outside their homeland share, from those in nearby Austria to those in faraway Australia, is a love for the beautiful music and dances of their ancestors. This love for the Croatian national heritage is also a powerful link with the land of our forefathers.